Definition
Non-Abrahamic spirituality encompasses some of the oldest religious practices in the world. Due to the lack of central authority, flexibility, and variation across ethnic lines, non-Abrahamic religions/practices are too numerous to exhaustively count. This bucket would include Hinduism, the Egyptians, the Vikings, the Greek pantheon, the Roman pantheon, Shintoism, Wiccans, Shamans, and much, much, much more.
Although all of these practices are different, they generally share a few key similarities. They all believe there’s a spiritual element to the universe, whether expressed through literal gods, spiritual entities, energies, or all of the above. They almost always have a deep reverence for nature, often going to the point of outright worship. There tends not to be any strict, fixed doctrine or liturgy; rather, the emphasis is on community, enlightenment, and freedom.
Of course, there are some outliers. Zoroastrianism, for example, is monotheistic, does not deeply focus on nature, and calls some peoples’ gods evil. However, strictly monotheistic religions in this category could be counted on one hand, and none of them make the Abrahamic claim of having the exclusive truth.
Obviously, I don’t have time to go over every intricacy of every non-Abrahamic tradition. I will give some brief details on a few of the most influential groups.
Hinduism
Hinduism is not any particular religion, but better defined as an amalgamation of polytheist folk religions which syncretized at certain points in history. Unlike most non-Abrahamic spiritual practices, Hinduism claims divine scriptural origin through the Vedas. The Vedas are the word of the Brahma, and are primarily concerned with rituals, rites, and customs. Later came the Upanishads, which are about spiritual development and enlightenment. While the Vedas provide divine ritualistic authority, the Upanishads give practical instruction on the spiritual life. The overarching theme is that there is a divine essence which we all share in, not as mere borrowers, but as being one with. That is, the transcendent divine reality (Brahman) and the touch of the divine within us (Atman) is truly one, as salt mixed into water is one drink, through and through (Chandogya 6:12).
The greatest Hindu literary work is the Bhagavad Gita, a poetic dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and the god-aspect Krishna. Krishna teaches the warrior that there are several paths to understanding the soul underlying existence and achieving eternal peace. The first is action without attachment to outcome – this is in relation to Arjuna’s reluctance to go to battle. The second is the path of knowledge, focused on discerning the eternal so as to see through the veil of existence. But the easiest path, teaches Krishna, is to love him and be devoted to him. There is an extraordinary tension in this idea – a combination of the transcendent soul of the universe being an impersonal absolute with the theistic, personal concept of love.
The tension is not resolved in the story. Everything is Brahman, and all distinction is illusory, yet distinction is what makes Brahman relatable. Brahman never changes, yet personal devotion somehow still finds favor with this impersonal deity. The tension again expresses itself in the attitudes of the Indian intelligentsia and the common Hindus. The intelligentsia tend to be more focused on the logical reality of Brahman (using similar logic to the Greek cosmological argument), while pop Hinduism is more devoted to the personal relationship. All Hindu gods are aspects of Brahman, and Hindus tend to pick the most relatable aspects (gods) to worship. One god may represent thunder and rain, another knowledge, another wealth. Hindu spirituality is indelibly marked by the tension between impersonality and relationship.
Hindu practices are many and variegated, but they are often fairly rigorous, frequent, and primarily concerned with appeasing the gods. Hinduism has had some influence from Jainism, an extraordinarily strict derivative which forbids even the accidental killing of insects or mistreatment of inanimate objects. Jainism also teaches the “many-sidedness” of the mind, an extreme relativism otherwise foreign to Hinduism.
Because Hindus believe in reincarnation as well as the virtues (particularly duty and knowledge), they developed the caste system. That is, people are born into a lower or higher caste, and it is considered a karmic punishment or reward. The lower castes are not treated well, while the higher castes are considered pure and holy. They cannot improve caste in this life, but may be reborn into a higher caste if they obey their regulations. Unlike Buddhism, there is no way to “escape” the cycle. The soul is immortal and must reincarnate.
Gandhi, when asked if he was a Hindu, said “Yes I am, I am also a Muslim, a Christian, a Buddhist, and a Jew.” Hinduism prides itself on being focused on love and oneness, enlightened beyond sectarian differences and religious politics. It is in light of these claims that critics vociferously attack Hinduism for the hypocrisy of the caste system. Hinduism is “beyond politics” and “open to interpretation” unless that interpretation threatens the supremacy of the Indian upper class.
Sikhism
Sikhism may be the only successful conscious syncretism in human history. Around 1500, Guru Nanak taught that God had inspired both Hinduism and Islam, but that human interference had corrupted both. A succession of gurus followed, culminating in the final guru – the scripture, Guru Granth Sahib. Distinct from the concept of a holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, is in fact the final and perpetual guru.
Sikhism takes strict monotheism and rejection of idolatry from Islam (though they are more pantheistic). There are more general post-Christian notes to be found in it as well, such as uncleanness coming from within, simplicity in ritual, and rejection of the caste system. Practically everything else comes from Hinduism; it is a dharmic religion. Sikhs are pacifists, but, largely due to a tumultuous history caught between two opposing major religions, are not shy about violence. Both men and women are supposed to follow the Five Ks: Kesh (uncut hair, covered by a turban), Kangha (comb), Kara (iron bracelet), Kachera (cotton undergarment) and Kirpan (iron dagger). These represent submission, discipline, oneness, fidelity, and justice, respectively.
Sikh life is about finding God in the moment through prayer and service. They believe there are many paths to God and actually disallow attempts to convert others. Consequently, their theology and apologetics are not particularly expansive. A Sikh will often say that the happiness and peace they find in their practice is the only “evidence” they need.
Buddhism
Buddhism began with Siddhartha Gautama, a wealthy Hindu aristocrat facing the reality of sickness and death, and then achieving enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree. Though thought of as a peaceful religion, it was considered a Hindu heresy, resulted in many exiles, and has had several tempestuous schisms over the centuries.
Buddha had two core religious innovations. The first is to deny the spiritual soul advocated by the Hindus as the source of consciousness. The second is the idea that consciousness is not an absolute, but a result of “dependent origination,” a process of constant “arising from conditions.” Practically, this means that if one could eliminate the conditions causing their consciousness to arise, they would eliminate “self” and thus eliminate rebirth. This release from the rebirth cycle is called Nirvana.
Buddha taught that the process which causes the self to “arise” is grasping. We invent selfhood by “grasping” for five things – shape, sensation, attractions of the will, fancies, and mental consciousness. The problem, he taught, is that we delight in this grasping, although it is the cause of our suffering. Like Sméagol getting his hands on the ring of power, we celebrate our own sources of misery. But this is not just an occasional thing – it’s literally what we are. This constant process of arising gives constant birth to self. The “you” that you spend all day with is an illusion of grasping, and is your worst enemy.
Buddha’s path to enlightenment was the great stress of his teaching. The main idea is simple: live rightly. This is the “middle path.” It acknowledges that grasping at Nirvana is still grasping, and one must be temperate, even in that pursuit. To summarize many teachings: “living rightly,” to Buddha, means freedom from the illusion of self-gratification and seeking it through lies, fleshly escapades, lust, or a dubious living. It also means commitment to gentleness, duty, patience, and a concentration which eventually becomes Nirvana. Although Buddhism is considered deeply monastic in the west, its roots are open to all practicians. These principles apply just as well to laymen as to monks.
Buddhism is a polytheistic religion, but the deities are more like superhumans than anything else. Traditionally, they have nothing to do with us and live in other realms. Buddhists also believe in the karmic system. Karma may cause one to be reborn in hell, on earth as a lesser being, or in the heavens as a god. Buddhists believe that to be human is best; gods have a hard time achieving nirvana since their lives are so pleasant, while lesser beasts are not even capable of it.
The Mahayana tradition of Buddhism seemed to syncretize with Christianity at a later point. They developed the idea that anyone can become a Bodhisattva – an enlightened one who is voluntarily reborn to aid others. The Mahayana ascribe dependent origination to objective reality, not just consciousness, and so see all men as one. This development led to a mystic tradition built on the growth of love for others (again, very Christian). It begins with an ethical injunction (shared by Hindus) to do no harm, then delight in refraining, then a delight in doing good, and finally doing what is good for its own sake, selflessly. The Mahayana practice prayer on behalf of others, as well as works to assist others in their enlightenment.
Other, more conservative (and less common) Buddhists are more atheistic, and are responsible for the idea that Buddhism is godless. To be clear: traditional Buddhism is still very much polytheistic, but adherents do not believe there is any use in praying to the gods, nor to a grander deity, nor to anything else. They remain more focused on the original roots of Buddhism: escape from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) at all costs. This is certainly more legalistic and cold than their counterparts’ interpretations, but also certainly more true to the original tradition. They do not engage in any sort of prayer nor ritualistic practice unless it has some subjective value toward enlightenment. Instead of praying for the good of others, for example, they would meditate to overcome desiring unnecessary good for others.
Taoism
Taoism developed in the same era as Buddhism and Confucianism. It is centered on the Tao – an eternal force which flows through and subjects all things. Duality (yin/yang) is the expression of Tao; nothing can exist except by relationship with its counterpart. Good only exists by contrast with evil, boy with girl, light with dark. The Tao is all these things and is in all these things, but it is greater than the sum – it is the underlying spirit and power of change by which duality manifests.
The Tao and the Taoist are as water – the weakest of all things, yet can overcome anything. The “doctrines” of Taoism are that wisdom is foolishness, strength is weakness, and action is idleness. Taoists believe in virtue, but again manifested in a non-intuitive way: humility is greatness, gentleness is real power, and self-diminishing is becoming. However, the expression of these virtues is not dogmatic; it is an “effortless action” resulting from spiritual attunement.
The goal of Taoism is not to rise above the self, but to find harmony between one’s will and the universal movement of the Tao. Just as one drop of water does not fight the motion of the stream but moves through harmony, the Taoist achieves all things effortlessly through this union. Taoism is intimate, rejects effort, and prizes spontaneity. Conversely, it syncretized heavily with Buddhism when Buddhism was introduced to China. The idea of dependent origination is very similar to the Taoist idea of duality, for example. The religion has many core practices: sacrifice to the deities, incantation, spiritual reading, divination, meditation, and astrology. There are many views as to the nature of humanity – its moral nature, karma, reincarnation, and spiritual transcendence. However, these methods of worship and “doctrinal” debates are not the same as those of the west; they are ultimately supplemental to the way.
New Age Spirituality
Max Weber called it the “disenchantment of the world” as technology and science eroded the sense of wonder in western life. The vibrance of real religious faith and devotion gave way to the coercive forces of custom and cultural pressure. After generations of going through the motions, the 70s marked an era of the west being honest with itself. People stopped going with the flow of Christianity. For many, this meant rejecting religiosity – all religiosity – with a critical ire. For some, this meant keeping traditional religion at arms length, maybe vaguely maintaining the principles. But some remained intensely interested in the preternatural without any interest in organized religion.
New Age spirituality or Neopaganism began in the 70’s, following the western popular exposure to eastern religiosity. It is characterized by an eclectic, often animistic belief in spiritual energies and mankind’s ability to harness them. Typical neopagans don’t believe in a physical pantheon, or even deities at all; usually they believe in a more ambiguous set of spiritual “entities” and sometimes “archetypes.” The movement obviously took cosmological notes from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Beyond that, the movement borrows from psychedelia, the philosophical works of people like Carl Jung, and medieval occult practices.
They are also, in a sense, a continuation of the social movements of the 70’s. They are purposely antagonistic to the Christian/patriarchal power structures which destroyed ancient paganism, emphasizing the occult and the feminine. New Agers use crystals, tarot cards, meditation, yoga, and reiki to try to achieve oneness with nature, chakra alignment, enlightenment, or cooperation with preternatural entities. The movement opposes traditional religion, preferring eclectic practices to legalism and self-help to the help of a church. It opposes traditional morality in favor of relativism, inclusivity, and enjoying life (for tomorrow we may die). It opposes traditional power structures, including the power structures of the Abrahamic God, often worshiping goddesses instead and emphasizing witchcraft.
True modern polytheists are uncommon. However, many in the west practice occult or eastern traditions recreationally, or for a more measured approach to the same spiritual ideals. Take the popularity of yoga or astrology, for instance.
Conclusion
Non-Abrahamic spirituality dominated the world prior to the advent of Christianity and Islam. They have a vast array of beliefs, but share ideas such as oneness with the universe and veneration of nature. Like their ancient predecessors, these groups express man’s deep desire to communally connect with the spiritual world. Today, around 28% of the world follow a non-Abrahamic spirituality.
My analysis will focus on a series of contradictions which beleaguer all of these belief systems, regardless of their particulars.
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